Capacitor with Charge Time Reducing Additives and Work Function Modifiers

ABSTRACT

A capacitor, and method for making the capacitor, is provided with improved charging characteristics. The capacitor has an anode, a cathode comprising a conductive polymer layer and a work function modifier layer adjacent the conductive polymer layer and a dielectric layer between the anode and the cathode.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

The present invention claims priority to pending U.S. ProvisionalApplication No. 62/001,165 filed May 21, 2014, which is incorporatedherein by reference.

BACKGROUND

The present invention is related to an improved method of preparing asolid electrolyte capacitor and an improved capacitor formed thereby.More specifically, the present invention is related to improving thecharging time of a capacitor by incorporating work function modifiers inthe interfaces between the dielectric and the conductive polymer layerand between adjacent conductive polymer layers.

Solid electrolytic capacitors are widely used throughout the electronicsindustry. Conductive polymers are widely used in capacitors, solar cellsand LED displays with exemplary conductive polymers includingpolypyrrole, polythiophene and polyaniline. Among them, the mostcommercially successful conductive polymer ispoly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDT). PEDT can be applied by formingthe PEDT polymer in-situ by chemical or electrochemical polymerizationor the PEDT can be applied as a PEDT dispersion, preferably with apolyanion, to increase solubility. More particularly, PEDT-polystyrenesulfonic acid (PEDT-PSSA) dispersions have gained a lot of attention dueto the high conductivity and good film forming properties. In highvoltage applications, solid electrolytic capacitors with a solidelectrolyte, formed by conductive PEDT:PSSA based polymer dispersions,give excellent performance compared to conductive PEDT:TSA based polymercathodes formed in-situ. The structure ofpoly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDT:PSS)consists of an insulating PSS layer surrounding doped PEDOT grains.Polystyrene sulfonate is the conjugate base of polystyrene sulfonic acidand the terms are used interchangeable herein depending on the context.

The theoretical charge required to reach rated voltage for a capacitoris given by the formula Q=CV, or taking the first time derivativedQ/dt=I=C dV/dt, where Q is charge, C is capacitance, V is voltage, t istime, and I is current. From these equations, the total charge requiredto reach the desired voltage can be determined for a capacitor having agiven capacitance value. For a constant current, I, using the previousequation charge time (t) is defined by the equation t=CV/I. This ismeasured using a constant current scanner and a source meter. Using thecharge time equation above, the theoretical charge time can becalculated for any given capacitor. In practice, the total chargerequired by certain capacitors often exceeds this theoreticalprediction. Practical consequences of this anomalous charging behaviorare that the charging current (dQ/dt) does not fall to low values asquickly as predicted by theory resulting in a slow charging effect.Furthermore, the charging current can exceed theoretically predictedlevels when the charge voltage is ramped (dV/dt). This behavior affectsmeasurement of DC leakage current and requires longer times to reach thespecified leakage current which can affect capacitor performance incustomers' circuits since when DC leakage current is measured, it takeslonger than expected for the capacitor's current to fall to levels lowerthan the specified leakage current for the given application.

Freeman et al. (ECS Journal of solid state science and technology,2(11)N197-N204(2013)) reported this anomalous charging behavior. Theyobserved a very high anomalous transient current when a short voltagepulse was applied after surface mounting of PEDT:PSS based polymertantalum capacitors on a circuit board, especially, in dry conditions.They also observed negligible transient current with PEDT:TSA basedpolymer tantalum capacitors. This anomalous transient current observedwith PEDT:PSS did not cause any detectable permanent damage to thedielectric but it decreased with repetition of the voltage pulse as wellas after exposure of the capacitor to a humid environment. They alsofurther observed higher charging time at very low temperatures whereascharging time in humid conditions was lower. Authors suggested mobilityof the PSS may be contributing to the charging time.

Koch et al., Applied Physics letter 90, 043512, 2007, observed that thework function of PEDT:PSS can be as high as 5.65 eV and that it isstrongly reduced by residual water (down to 5.05 eV) as measured by XPS.In addition, uptake of the water is accompanied by pronounced surfacecomposition changes which contribute to changes in work function. Kochet al. suggested that the preferential orientation of PEDT+ and PSS−dipoles with their negative end towards vacuum i.e., for a PSS-richsurface on the surface leads to an increase in work function.Accordingly, they observed lower work function values for samples withlower surface PSS concentration when the PEDT:PSS was treated withmoisture in photovoltaic devices.

The experimental observation of lower anomalous current by Freeman etal. with moisture exposure, and the experimental observation of lowersurface PSS concentration on moisture treatment by Koch et al. led toInventor's suggestion that the surface PSS concentration may be playinga larger role in reducing anomalous current or reducing charging time.This understanding lead to efforts focusing on methods to reduce surfacePSS concentration or surface charge density.

Mack et al., Application note #52078, Thermo Fischer Scientific,describes a method of measuring and mapping work function using an X-rayphotoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). They observed a higher work functionin a delaminated interface than in areas that were not delaminated inphotovoltaic devices. This suggests that in addition to higher PSSsurface concentration, delamination at the interface can also lead tohigher work function. This understanding lead to efforts to solve theproblems associated with poor charge characteristics by improving thelamination, or decreasing delamination, of adjacent layers.

In spite of the efforts of those of skill in the art it has not beenpreviously realized that the charge time in a capacitor is related tothe inherent work function of the conductive polymer layer itselfinstead of PSS mobility or delamination thereby clarifying theinsufficient results from previous efforts. Provided herein is animproved capacitor, and method of making the capacitor, with loweredwork function achieved by the use of work function modifiers whichminimizes a physical phenomenon not previously considered in capacitorsthereby mitigating, and in some cases eliminating, the undesirablecharge characteristics and returning capacitors comprising conductivepolymer cathodes to, or near, the theoretical charging characteristicswhich were previously not achieved.

SUMMARY

It is an object of the invention to provide an improved solidelectrolytic capacitor.

It is another object of the invention to provide an improved method ofpreparing a solid electrolytic capacitor cathode with good reliability.

It is another object of the invention to provide an improved method ofpreparing a solid electrolytic capacitor cathode wherein the cathode hasa charging time which approaches the theoretical charge time.

It is another object of the invention to provide an improved method ofpreparing a solid electrolytic capacitor comprising work functionmodifying layers which reduce the charging time wherein the layerscomprise work function modifiers.

It is another object of the invention to provide an improved method ofpreparing a solid electrolytic capacitor comprising materials whichreduce the work function

It is another object of the invention to provide an improved method ofpreparing a solid electrolytic capacitor by incorporating work afunction modifier layer between conductive polymer layers and adjacentlayers.

These, and other advantages as will be realized, is provided in acapacitor comprising an anode a cathode comprising a conductive polymerlayer and a work function modifier layer adjacent the conductive polymerlayer and a dielectric layer between the anode and the cathode.

Yet another embodiment is provided in a method for forming a capacitorcomprising:

forming an anode;forming a dielectric on the anode; andforming a cathode on the anode comprising:forming a conductive polymer layer; andforming a work function modifier layer in a location to be adjacent theconductive polymer layer.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES

FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional schematic view of an embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional schematic view of an embodiment of theinvention.

FIG. 3 is a schematic flow chart view of an embodiment of the invention.

DESCRIPTION

The present invention is related to an improved method of preparing asolid electrolyte capacitor and an improved capacitor formed thereby.More specifically, the present invention is related to improving thecharging time of a capacitor by incorporating work function modifiers onthe conducting polymer interfaces including the interface between thedielectric and a conductive polymer layer and the interface betweenadjacent conductive polymer layers.

Although the invention is not limited by theory, it is now believed thata correlation exists between the work function of the conductive polymerlayer and charging time of the capacitor. It is further believed thatthe charging time can be reduced by incorporating specific work functionmodifiers at the interfaces of the conductive polymer layers.

It was surprisingly found that the charging time is reduced by a fewclasses of materials which can interact with surface PSS to reducesurface PSS concentration or charge concentration resulting from thePSS. These materials are identified herein as work function modifiers,Work function modifiers include materials which can react or interactwith the surface PSS and thus reduce the surface concentration of chargefrom the PSS. It was also surprisingly found that charge time is reducedby these materials which either form an ionic bond or covalent bond withsurface PSS. These material either react with surface PSS forming achemically reacted mixed layer or by blending with surface PSS forming amixed layer thus decreasing the effective surface concentration of PSSand PSS layer thickness or the surface charge related thereto. It isthought that by reducing the charge density of the PSS rich layer thesurface effects causing electron blocking are reduced. It is furtherbelieved that this electron blocking property is affecting the chargingtime.

A capacitor comprising a work function modifier has a charging timewhich is no more than 1.5 times the theoretical limit. Even morepreferably, a capacitor comprising the work function modifier has acharging time which is no more than 1.2 times the theoretical limit andin some embodiments a charge time can be achieved which is no more thanthe theoretical limit.

The invention will be described with reference to the figures forming anintegral component of the instant invention. Throughout the variousfigures similar elements will be numbered accordingly.

An embodiment of the invention is illustrated in cross-sectionalschematic side view in FIG. 1. In FIG. 1, a capacitor, generallyrepresented at 10, comprises an anode, 12, with an anode lead wire, 14,extending therefrom or attached thereto. The anode lead wire ispreferably in electrical contact with an anode lead, 16. A dielectric,18, is formed on the anode and preferably the dielectric encases atleast a portion, and preferably the entire, anode. A cathode, 20,comprising work function modifiers at an interface of the conductivepolymer layer, is on the dielectric and encases a portion of thedielectric with the proviso that the cathode and anode are not in directelectrical contact. A cathode lead, 22, is in electrical contact withthe cathode. In many embodiments it is preferred to encase the capacitorin a non-conductive resin, 24, with at least a portion of the anode leadand cathode lead exposed for attachment to a circuit board as would bereadily understood by one of skill in the art. The cathode may comprisemultiple sub-layers. The present invention is directed to improvementsin the cathode layer, 20, and more particularly to the formation of thecathode layer.

An embodiment of the invention is illustrated in partial cross-sectionalschematic view in FIG. 2. In FIG. 2, the cathode, 20, comprises multipleinterlayers, 201-205, which are illustrated schematically, wherein thecathode is formed on the dielectric, 18. While not limited thereto thecathode interlayers are preferably selected from layers of conductivepolymer, carbon containing layers and metal containing layers mostpreferably in sequential order. In a particularly preferred embodimentthe cathode layer comprises multiple interlayers of conductive polymer,201, formed either by in-situ polymerization or by repeated dipping in aslurry of conductive polymer with at least partial drying between dipswith a work function modifying layer, 202, comprising a work functionmodifier between adjacent interlayers at the conducting polymerinterfaces and/or between the dielectric and conductive polymerinterface. It is well understood that soldering a lead frame, orexternal termination, to a polymeric cathode is difficult. It hastherefore become standard in the art to provide conductive interlayerswhich allow for solder adhesion. A first conductive interlayer, 203,which is preferably at least one carbon containing interlayer, istypically applied to the outermost conductive polymer interlayer, 201.The carbon containing interlayer, or series of carbon interlayers,provides adhesion to the conductive polymer interlayer and provides alayer upon which a second conductive interlayer, which is preferably atleast one metal containing interlayer, 204, will adequately adhere. Awork function modifier layer is not considered necessary, or suitable,between the conductive polymer layer and the carbon layer and istherefore preferably excluded.

The carbon layer serves as a chemical barrier between the solidelectrolyte and the metal containing layer. Critical properties of thecarbon layer include adhesion to the underlying layer, wetting of theunderlying layer, uniform coverage, penetration into the underlyinglayer, bulk conductivity, interfacial resistance, compatibility with thesilver layer, buildup, and mechanical properties.

Particularly preferred metal containing layers comprise silver, copperor nickel. The metal interlayer allows external terminations, such as acathode lead to be attached to the cathodic side of the capacitor suchas by solder or an adhesive interlayer, 205. The cathodic conductivelayer, which is preferably a silver layer, serves to conduct currentfrom the lead frame to the cathode and around the cathode to the sidesnot directly connected to the lead frame. The critical characteristicsof this layer are high conductivity, adhesive strength to the carbonlayer, wetting of the carbon layer, and acceptable mechanicalproperties.

The work function modifiers are a material which reduces the workfunction of the conducting polymer layer applied at the interface of theconducting polymer layers. Work function modifiers reduce the workfunction of the conducting polymer by at least 0.1 eV to no more than 1eV and more preferably by no more than 0.5 eV. Below about 0.1 eV thebenefit is insufficient to justify the incorporation of the layer andabove about 1 eV higher leakage current ensues which diminishes thequality of the capacitor. The work function modifier is preferablyapplied as a layer between a conductive polymer layer and an adjacentlayer. The adjacent layer can be a dielectric or an adjacent conductivepolymer layer.

Work function modifiers can be applied as a dispersion or solutionbetween the conductive polymer layers. Work function is the minimumenergy needed to remove an electron from a solid to a point in thevacuum immediately outside the solid surface and is therefore a physicalproperty correlating to an electron traversing an interface. The workfunction is a characteristic of the surface of the material, as opposedto the bulk, and therefore nano particles and monolayers which interactwith the surface PSS are preferred for demonstration of the invention.

It is hypothesized that the interaction of the work function modifierswith surface PSS is either a van der Waals' interaction, ionic bond or acovalent bond. These interactions result in the reduction of the surfacePSS layer thickness due to the short range and long range interactionforces characteristics of these bonds. Work function modifiers arechosen such that they can effectively interact with surface PSS leadingto a reduction in surface PSS concentration or surface charge due to thePSS concentration. This may also result in a decrease in the interfacialseparation across the cathode interface.

An embodiment of the invention is the incorporation of nanoparticles ofinorganic oxide such as zinc oxide, cerium oxide, indium oxide,manganese oxide and other oxides of low work function metals. Theinorganic oxide dispersion can be applied as a dispersion of thenanoparticles of the oxide. These nanoparticles interact through theircations, Zn²⁺, Ce⁴⁺, with the surface PSS on the conductive polymerinterfaces to reduce the effective surface PSS concentration, or surfacecharge density due to the PSS, and thus reduce the work function. Theseinorganic oxide dispersions can be applied before the cathode layers soas to interact with the PSS rich layer on the cathode side of thedielectric-cathode interface. Alternatively, they can be applied betweenthe conducting polymer layer so that the PSS rich surface can beeffectively reduced. As work function is primarily a surface phenomenonit is preferable that the particle, of the work function modifier, be ananoparticle with a cross-sectional size of at least 10 nm to no morethan 100 nm and more preferably at least 20 nm to no more than 40 nm.Below about 10 nm the material becomes very difficult to handle in amanufacturing environment. Above about 100 nm the efficiency decreasesand the benefits diminish. The preferred layer thickness is preferablyabout the same thickness as the particle size of the work functionmodifier. Particularly preferred work function modifiers includehydrophilic inorganic oxides or organometallic compounds. Zinc oxide,cerium oxide and indium oxide are particularly suitable inorganic oxidesfor demonstration of the invention. Zinc oxide is particularly suitablefor demonstration of the invention due to the ready availability, lowwork function and suitability with the other components of the cathode.

Another embodiment of the invention is the incorporation of organiccompounds which react with the PSS layer. One example of such an organiccompound is an epoxy and preferably an organic compound comprisingmultiple epoxy groups with bi-functional epoxy monomers being exemplary.The epoxy group can react with the sulphonic acid groups and thuseffectively reduce the surface PSS concentration. These reactivecompounds are applied at the conducting polymer interfaces. When appliedbefore the conducting polymer layer, these reactive organic compoundsare believed to react with surface PSS to reduce the surfaceconcentration of PSS or surface charge density resulting from the PSSAconcentration. The addition of a second organic compound, such as vinylphosphonic acid, further reduces charging time possibly by increasingthe reactivity and thus by reducing the surface PSS concentration to aneven lower level.

The epoxy compound can be a monomer or an oligomer. They can be watersoluble, water dispersible or soluble in various solvents. They also canbe radiation curable. Since the epoxy compound is applied as separatelayer, it need not be water soluble or water dispersible. Epoxycompounds dissolved in water, isopropyl alcohol (IPA) or diethyleneglycol monoethyl ether acetate (DE acetate) can be applied over thedielectric layer or over cured polymer slurry layer by dipping followedby curing. Curing can be accomplished by thermal curing or radiationcuring with UV curing being exemplary. It is preferable the epoxycompound have multiple epoxy groups.

The epoxy compound is preferably selected from the group consisting ofcycloaliphatic epoxy resin, ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether, bisphenolA epoxy resin, bisphenol F epoxy resin, bisphenol S epoxy resin, novolacepoxy resin, aliphatic epoxy resin, Glycidylamine epoxy resin, ethyleneglycol diglycidyl ether (EGDGE), propylene glycol diglycidyl ether(PGDGE), 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether (BDDGE), pentylene glycoldiglycidyl ether, hexylene glycol diglycidyl ether, cyclohexanedimethanol diglycidyl ether, resorcinol glycidyl ether, glyceroldiglycidyl ether (GDGE), glycerol polyglycidyl ethers, diglycerolpolyglycidyl ethers, trimethylolpropane polyglycidyl ethers, sorbitoldiglycidyl ether (Sorbitol-DGE), sorbitol polyglycidyl ethers,polyethylene glycol diglycidyl ether (PEGDGE), polypropylene glycoldiglycidyl ether, polytetramethylene glycol diglycidyl ether,di(2,3-epoxypropyl)ether, 1,3-butadiene diepoxide, 1,5-hexadienediepoxide, 1,2,7,8-diepoxyoctane, 1,2,5,6-diepoxycyclooctane, 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide, bisphenol A diglycidyl ether, maleimide-epoxycompounds and derivatives thereof.

Some of the preferred epoxy monomer are listed below from cycloaliphaticepoxide is 3,4-epoxycyclohexyl methyl 3,4-epoxy-cyclohexane carboxylatewith formula:

where in, n, of celloxide 2081 is an integer of 1 to 10 and theintegers, I-o, of epolead GT401 are independently 1 to 10.

A third embodiment of the invention is the incorporation oforganometallic compounds such as neoalkoxy titanates with severalreactive moieties. Neoalkoxy titanates form a monomolecular layer at theinterface and the reactive moieties, including Ti⁴⁺, are believed tointeract with surface PSS thus reducing the effective surface PSSconcentration or surface charge due to the PSS. Neoalkoxy titanates arepreferably used as a separate layer between adjacent conductive layers.Organotitanates are particularly suitable organometallics fordemonstration of the invention. Particularly suitable organotitanatesare selected from the group consisting of di-alkoxy acyl titanate,tri-alkoxy acyl titanate, alkoxy triacyl titantate and alkoxy titantate.A particularly suitable organometallic is neoalkoxy titanate withtitanium IV 2,2(bis 2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato, tris neodecanoato-O;titanium IV 2,2(bis 2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato,iris(dodecyl)benzenesulfonato-O; titanium IV 2,2(bis2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato, tris(dioctyl)phosphato-O; titanium IV2,2(bis 2-propenolatomethyl)tris(dioctyl)pyrophosphatobutanolato-O;titanium IV 2,2(bis 2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato,tris(2-ethylenediamino)ethylato; and titanium IV 2,2(bis2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato, tris(3-amino)phenylato beingrepresentative neoalkoxy titanates and derivatives thereof.

Another embodiment is the incorporation of cationic polyelectrolytes.Due to the cationic nature of these materials, they are believed to formionic bonds with surface polyanionic PSS thereby reducing the surfacePSS layer thickness or the charge density of the PSS layer. Any cationicpolyelectrolytes can be used to reduce surface PSS concentration andreduce the work function.

A great number of polymeric structures can be transformed into acationic polyelectrolyte structure by covalently attaching a sufficientnumber of quaternary ammonium groups to the polymer backbone asdescribed in Progress in Polymer Science Volume 35, Issue 5, May 2010,Pages 511-577. The number of different cationic substituents iscomparatively small, but the huge variability of the polymer backboneleads to cationic polyelectrolytes with a wide variety of structures andproperties. Exemplary cationic groups are selected from the groupconsisting of amidinium, phosphonium, quaternary ammonium, guanadinium,anilinium, thiouronium, carbenium, pyridinium, imidazolium, sulfonium,diazonium and derivatives thereof.

Another embodiments is the incorporation of ionic liquids. Their strongionic conductivity and strong interaction with adjacent ionic moietieshelps to reduce the surface PSS concentration or charge density due tothe PSS concentration. Cationic ionic liquids and polycationic ionicliquids are preferred for this application.

Ionic liquids (ILs) are generally defined as organic/inorganic saltswith a melting point lower than 100° C. which present a good chemicaland electrochemical stability, low flammability, negligible vaporpressure and high ionic conductivity. In a liquid state and withnegligible vapor pressure, ionic liquids are commonly considered asgreen solvents for industrial production. Ionic liquids are organicsalts in which the ions are poorly coordinated and melt below 100° C.,or even at room temperature. Ionic liquids have a wide electrochemicaloperational window and comparably high matrix mobility at roomtemperature. Because ionic liquids are entirely composed of ions, theircharge density is much higher than that of an ordinary salt solution.

Poly(ionic liquids)s (PILs), refer to a subclass of polyelectrolytesthat feature an ionic liquid species in each monomer repeating unit,connected through a polymeric backbone to form a macromoleculararchitecture as set forth in Progress in Polymer Science Volume 38,Issue 7, July 2013, Pages 1009-1036. Some of the unique properties ofionic liquids are incorporated into the polymer chains, giving rise to anew class of polymeric materials. Polymeric ionic liquids expand theproperties and applications of ionic liquids and commonpolyelectrolytes. Due to the solvent-independent ionization state of theionic liquid species, polymeric ionic liquids are permanent and strongpolyelectrolytes. The characteristic feature of absorbing water is acommon feature of ionic liquids and polymeric ionic liquids.

Exemplary polymeric ionic liquids are selected from the group consistingof:

1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate and derivatives thereof.

Nanogels are nanometer-scale two-component systems consisting of apermanent three-dimensional network of linked polymer chains, andmolecules of a liquid filling the pores of this network. According toEncyclopedia of Nanotechnology the definition of these polymericnanoparticles may be directly derived from definition of polymeric gel,i.e., a two-component system consisting of a permanent three-dimensionalnetwork of linked polymer chains, and molecules of a solvent filling thepores of this network. Ionic liquids and polyelectrolytes areparticularly suitable for the formation of a nanogel. Based on thisapproach polymeric nanogels are classified as particles of polymer gelswith colloidal properties, having the dimensions in the order ofnanometers. A particularly suitable nanogel is prepared from1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate.

Nanogels can be neutral or ionic. Nano ionic liquid gels are gels wherethe liquid phase, percolating throughout the solid polymeric phase, isan ionic liquid. Ion gels are new kind of gels compared to thehydrogels, where the liquid phase is water, or organogels, where theliquid phase is an organic solvent. (A. S. Shaplov, et al., RecentAdvances in Innovative Polymer Electrolytes based on Poly(ionicliquid)s, Electrochim. Acta (2015)). Additionally, the negligible vaporpressure, the non-flammability and high enough thermal stability of theionic-liquids phase permit the use of ion gels at elevated temperatures,up to 330-350° C. The main advantages of the utilization of poly(ionicliquid)s include: high chemical affinity and miscibility betweenpoly(ionic liquid)s and ionic liquids that make them perfect candidatesto encapsulate-solidify-gellify organic salts and to develop tailor-madeion gels; high ion-ion interactions between the charged polymer matrixand the ionic filler that prevent phase separation and leakage of theliquid phase out of the gel even under the applied load as compared toother solid matrixes and low contents of ionic liquid filler necessaryto reach high values of ionic conductivity. One example is the formationof carboxymethyl starch (CMS) nanogel with 50 nm less particle size byan irradiation crosslinked process on the electron beam (EB) linearaccelerator.

Another embodiment is incorporation of work function modifiers in ananogel matrix. Like hydrogels, the pores in nanogels can be filled withsmall molecules or macromolecules and their properties, such asswelling, degradation, and chemical functionality, can be controlled.Nanogels enable controlled and sustained release of the filled liquid ormolecules at a desired site. Temperature responsive nanogels undergo areversible volume phase transition with a change in the temperature ofthe environmental conditions and exhibit a controlled and sustainedrelease of the filled molecules in response to temperature changes. Anyof the work function modifiers discussed above can be incorporated intothe nanogel matrix thus providing a reservoir for the work functionmodifiers. When capacitors are exposed to higher temperatures, PSS fromthe bulk of the PEDT:PSS can come to the surface or interface and form aPSS rich layer. By providing a temperature responsive nanogel comprisingwork function modifiers, work function modifiers can be released fromthe nanogel to the interface so as to effectively interact with thenewly formed surface PSS. When the capacitors are exposed to bothstresses and temperatures, a potential delamination between theinterface can occur causing even higher work function. A temperature andstress responsive nanogel can release the work function modifiers tothese interfaces and effectively reduce the surface PSS concentrations,or surface charge effects related thereto, as well as reduce theinterfacial layer distances through their short and long rangeinteractions. A particularly suitable nanogel for demonstration of theinvention comprises a crosslinked linear dendritic hybrid polymers andparticularly linear dendritic hybrid polymers having on average no morethan 128 hydroxyl groups.

An embodiment of the invention is illustrated in flow chart form in FIG.3. In FIG. 3, the method of forming a solid electrolytic capacitor ofthe instant invention is illustrated. In FIG. 3, an anode is provided at32. A dielectric is formed on the surface of the anode at 34 with aparticularly preferred dielectric being the oxide of the anode. Acathode layer is formed at 36 wherein the cathode comprises at least oneconductive polymer layer and at least one work function modifier layerbetween the conductive polymer layer and an adjacent layer. It ispreferable that the conductive polymer layer comprise multipleinterlayers of conductive polymer with work function modifier appliedbetween adjacent layers. The intrinsically conducting polymer is eitherformed in-situ or the layer is formed by coating with a slurrycomprising intrinsically conducting polymer. The cathode preferablyfurther comprises at least one carbon containing layer and at least onemetal containing layer. Anode and cathode leads are attached to theanode and cathode respectively at 38 and the capacitor is optionally,but preferably, encased at 40 and tested.

The conductive polymer layer may be formed in a single step wherein aslurry is applied comprising at least the conductive polymer andoptionally crosslinkers, and any adjuvants such as binder, dopant,organic acid and the like. Alternatively, the conductive polymer layermay be formed in multiple steps wherein components of the layer areapplied separately.

It is beneficial in some embodiments to apply a cross-linker or couplingagent either in concert with the conductive polymer, in concert with thework function modifier or prior to subsequent conductive polymer layerbeing applied. Since the mixture of conductive polymer and crosslinkersmay react prematurely it is preferably to apply cross-linker eitherbetween adjacent layers or in concert with the work function modifierthereby increasing the pot-life of a slurry comprising conductivepolymer.

Particularly suitable crosslinkers include bifunctional materialswherein each functional group forms a chemical bond with one componentbeing crosslinked. Particularly suitable crosslinkers include epoxycrosslinkers and hydrophilic coupling agents.

The anode is a conductor preferably selected from a metal or aconductive metal oxide. More preferably the anode comprises a mixture,alloy or conductive oxide of a valve metal preferably selected from Al,W, Ta, Nb, Ti, Zr and Hf. Most preferably the anode comprises at leastone material selected from the group consisting of Al, Ta, Nb and NbO.An anode consisting essentially of Ta is most preferred. It ispreferable that the anode be formed from a powder with a high chargedensity. Powders with a CV of at least 40,000 μFV/g are preferred andmore preferably more than 70,000 μFV/g.

The cathode is a conductor preferably comprising a conductive polymericmaterial. Particularly preferred conductive polymers includeintrinsically conductive polymers most preferably selected frompolypyrrole, polyaniline and polythiophene. Metals can be employed as acathode material with valve metals being less preferred. The cathodepreferably includes multiple interlayers with work function modifiersbetween the adjacent layers wherein adhesion layers are employed toimprove adhesion between the conductor and the termination. Particularlypreferred adhesion interlayers include carbon, silver, copper, oranother conductive material in a binder. The cathode is preferablyformed by dipping, coating or spraying either a slurry of conductivepolymer or a conductive polymer precursor which is polymerized by anoxidant as known in the art. Carbon and metal containing layers aretypically formed by dipping into a carbon containing liquid or bycoating. The carbon containing layers and metal containing layers can beformed by electroplating and this is a preferred method, in oneembodiment, particularly for the metal containing layer.

The cathode layer is a conductive layer preferably comprising conductivepolymer, such as polythiophene, polyaniline, polypyrrole or theirderivatives; manganese dioxide, lead oxide or combinations thereof.

A particularly preferred conducting polymer is illustrated in Formula I:

R¹ and R² of Formula 1 are chosen to prohibit polymerization at theβ-site of the ring. It is most preferred that only α-site polymerizationbe allowed to proceed. Therefore, it is preferred that R¹ and R² are nothydrogen. More preferably, R¹ and R² are α-directors. Therefore, etherlinkages are preferable over alkyl linkages. It is most preferred thatthe groups are small to avoid steric interferences. For these reasons R¹and R² taken together as —O—(CH₂)₂—O— is most preferred.

In Formula 1, X is S or N and most preferable X is S.

R¹ and R² independently represent linear or branched C₁-C₁₆ alkyl orC₂-C₁₈ alkoxyalkyl; or are C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl, phenyl or benzyl which areunsubstituted or substituted by C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy, halogen orOR³; or R¹ and R², taken together, are linear C₁-C₆ alkylene which isunsubstituted or substituted by C₁-C₆ alkyl, C₁-C₆ alkoxy, halogen,C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl, phenyl, benzyl, C₁-C₄ alkylphenyl, C₁-C₄ alkoxyphenyl,halophenyl, C₁-C₄ alkylbenzyl, C₁-C₄alkoxybenzyl or halobenzyl, 5-, 6-,or 7-membered heterocyclic structure containing two oxygen elements. R³preferably represents hydrogen, linear or branched C₁-C₁₆ alkyl orC₂-C₁₈ alkoxyalkyl; or are C₃-C₈ cycloalkyl, phenyl or benzyl which areunsubstituted or substituted by C₁-C₆ alkyl.

The conducting polymer is preferably chosen from polypyrroles,polyanilines, polythiophenes and polymers comprising repeating units ofFormula I, particularly in combination with organic sulfonates: Aparticularly preferred polymer is 3,4-polyethylene dioxythiophene(PEDT). The polymer can be applied by any technique commonly employed informing layers on a capacitor including dipping, spraying oxidizerdopant and monomer onto the pellet or foil, allowing the polymerizationto occur for a set time, and ending the polymerization with a wash. Thepolymer can also be applied by electrolytic deposition as well known inthe art.

The dielectric is a non-conductive layer which is not particularlylimited herein. The dielectric may be a metal oxide or a ceramicmaterial. A particularly preferred dielectric is the oxide of a metalanode due to the simplicity of formation and ease of use. The dielectricis preferably formed by dipping the anode into an anodizing solutionwith electrochemical conversion. Alternatively, a dielectric precursorcan be applied by spraying or printing followed by sintering to form thelayer. When the dielectric is an oxide of the anode material dipping isa preferred method whereas when the dielectric is a different material,such as a ceramic, a spraying or coating technique is preferred.

The anode lead wire is chosen to have low resistivity and to becompatible with the anode material. The anode lead wire may be the sameas the anode material or a conductive oxide thereof. Particularlypreferred anode lead wires include Ta, Nb and NbO. The shape of theanode lead wire is not particularly limiting. Preferred shapes includeround, oval, rectangular and combinations thereof. The shape of theanode lead wire is preferably chosen for optimum electrical properties.

The conductive polymer has a backbone defined as —(CR¹R²CR³R⁴)_(x)—wherein at least one of R¹, R², R³ or R⁴ comprises a group selected fromthiophene, pyrrole or aniline which may be substituted wherein subscriptx is at least 2 to no more than 1000. Hydrogen and lower alkyls of lessthan five carbons are particularly suitable. Thiophenes are particularlypreferred with poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) being most preferred.

The construction and manufacture of solid electrolyte capacitors is welldocumented. In the construction of a solid electrolytic capacitor avalve metal preferably serves as the anode. The anode body can be eithera porous pellet, formed by pressing and sintering a high purity powder,or a foil which is etched to provide an increased anode surface area. Anoxide of the valve metal is electrolytically formed to cover up to allof the surfaces of the anode and to serve as the dielectric of thecapacitor. The solid cathode electrolyte is typically chosen from a verylimited class of materials, to include manganese dioxide or electricallyconductive organic materials including intrinsically conductivepolymers, such as polyaniline, polypyrol, polythiophene and theirderivatives. The solid cathode electrolyte is applied so that it coversall dielectric surfaces and is in direct intimate contact with thedielectric. In addition to the solid electrolyte, the cathodic layer ofa solid electrolyte capacitor typically consists of several layers whichare external to the anode body. In the case of surface mountconstructions these layers typically include: a carbon layer; a cathodeconductive layer which may be a layer containing a highly conductivemetal, typically silver, bound in a polymer or resin matrix; and aconductive adhesive layer such as silver filled adhesive. The layersincluding the solid cathode electrolyte, conductive adhesive and layersthere between are referred to collectively herein as the cathode whichtypically includes multiple interlayers designed to allow adhesion onone face to the dielectric and on the other face to the cathode lead. Ahighly conductive metal lead frame is often used as a cathode lead fornegative termination. The various layers connect the solid electrolyteto the outside circuit and also serve to protect the dielectric fromthermo-mechanical damage that may occur during subsequent processing,board mounting, or customer use.

In the case of conductive polymer cathodes the conductive polymer istypically applied by either chemical oxidation polymerization,electrochemical oxidation polymerization or by dipping, spraying, orprinting of pre-polymerized dispersions.

The backbone of a conductive polymer comprises a conjugated bondingstructure. The polymer can exist in two general states, an undoped,non-conductive state, and a doped, conductive state. In the doped state,the polymer is conductive but has poor processability due to a highdegree of conjugation along the polymer chain. In its undoped form, thesame polymer loses its conductivity but can be processed more easilybecause it is more soluble. When doped, the polymer incorporates anionicmoieties as constituents on its positively charged backbone. In order toachieve high conductivity, the conductive polymers used in the capacitormust be in a doped form after the completion of the process, althoughduring the process, the polymer can be undoped or doped as necessary toachieve certain process advantages. The conductive polymer layerpreferably comprises a dopant, and more preferably a polyanion dopant.The polyanion dopant can be present in an amount of up to 90 wt % eventhough not all polyanion functions as a dopant. It is preferable to havea dopant concentration from about 5 wt % to about 30 wt %, morepreferably 12 wt % to about 25 wt % and most preferably about 21 wt %.Any suitable dopant may be used such as 5-sulfosalicylic acid,dodecylbenzenesulfonate, p-toluenesulfonate or chloride. A particularlyexemplary dopant is p-toluenesulfonate. A particularly preferredpolyanion dopant is polystyrene sulfonic acid.

Throughout the description stated ranges, such as 0-6 or 0.1-0.6 referto all intermediate ranges with the same number of significant figuresas the highest significant figure listed.

EXAMPLES Comparative Example 1

A series of tantalum anodes (1500 uF, 6V) using two different sets ofanodes was prepared. The tantalum was anodized to form a dielectric onthe tantalum anode. The anodized anode thus formed was dipped into asolution of iron (III) toluenesulfonate oxidant for 1 minute andsequentially dipped into ethyldioxythiophene monomer for 1 minute. Thecoated anodized anodes were washed to remove excess monomer andby-products of the reactions after the completion of 60 minutespolymerization, which formed a thin layer of conductive polymer (PEDOT)on the dielectric of the anodes. This process was repeated 6 times. Acommercial conductive polymer dispersion (Clevios KV2) was applied toform a thick external polymer layer. After drying, alternating layers ofdecanediamine toluenesulfonate and dispersion (Clevios KV2) were appliedand repeated 3 more times. The anodes were washed and a conventionalgraphite coating was applied followed by a conventional silver layer.Parts were assembled, aged and surface mounted. Charging time wasmeasured after two reflow passes using a lead-free solder at atemperature of 260° C. Charge time was expressed as a function of thetheoretical charging time.

Inventive Example 1

Parts were prepared in the same manner as in Comparative Example 1except that the decanediamine toluenesulfonate layer was replaced withzinc oxide dispersion. Alternating layers of 40 nm zinc oxide dispersionand dispersion (Clevios KV2) were applied and repeated 3 more times. Thetreatment and testing was the same as Comparative Example 1.

Inventive Example 2

Parts were prepared in the same manner as in Inventive Example 1 exceptalternating layers of cerium oxide dispersion were used instead of zincoxide. The treatment and testing was then the same as ComparativeExample 1.

TABLE 1 Examples Charging time (sec) Comparative example 1 7xtheoretical Inventive Example 1 1x theoretical Inventive Example 2 1.3xtheoretical

Inventive Example 3

Parts were prepared in the same manner as in Inventive Example 1 excepta zinc oxide dispersion was applied before the first conductive polymerdispersion followed by alternating layers of decane diamine toluenesulfonate and conductive polymer dispersion (Clevios KV2). The treatmentand testing was then the same as Comparative Example 1.

Inventive Example 4

Parts were prepared in the same manner as in Inventive Example 3 excepta cerium oxide dispersion was used instead of zinc oxide. The treatmentand testing was then the same as Comparative Example 1.

TABLE 2 Examples Charging time (sec) Comparative example 1 7xtheoretical Inventive Example 3 1.1x theoretical Inventive Example 41.2x theoretical

Comparative Example 2

A series of tantalum anodes (68 uF, 16V) using two different sets ofanodes was prepared. The tantalum was anodized to form a dielectric onthe tantalum anode. The anode thus formed was dipped into a solution ofiron (III) toluenesulfonate oxidant for 1 minute and sequentially dippedinto ethyldioxythiophene monomer for 1 minute. The anodes were washed toremove excess monomer and by-products of the reactions after thecompletion of 60 minutes polymerization, which formed a thin layer ofconductive polymer (PEDOT) on the dielectric of the anodes. This processwas repeated 5 times. A commercial conductive polymer dispersion(Clevios KV2) was applied to form a thick external polymer layer. Afterdrying, alternating layers of decanediamine, toluenesulfonate anddispersion (Clevios KV2) were applied and repeated 4 more times. Thetreatment and testing was then the same as Comparative Example 1.

Inventive Example 6

Parts were prepared in the same manner as in Comparative Example 2except that the conductive polymer dispersion used comprised ofbi-functional epoxy monomers instead of Cleviois KV2 dispersion. Afterdrying alternating layers of decanediamine toluenesulfonate andconductive polymer dispersion comprising bi-functional epoxy monomerswere applied and repeated 4 more times. The treatment and testing wasthen the same as Comparative Example 1.

Inventive Example 5

Parts were prepared in the same manner as in Comparative Example 2except that the conductive polymer dispersion used comprised ofbi-functional epoxy monomers instead of Cleviois KV2 dispersion. Partswere prepared in the same manner as in comparative example 2 except thatbi-functional epoxy monomers solution was applied before the firstconductive polymer dispersion layer. After drying, alternating layers ofdecanediamine toluenesulfonate and conductive polymer dispersioncomprising bi-functional epoxy monomers were applied and repeated 4 moretimes. The treatment and testing was then the same as ComparativeExample 6.

The results of the testing are presented in the Table.

TABLE 3 Examples Charging time (sec) Comparative Example 2 6Xtheoretical Inventive Example 5 1.6X theoretical

Inventive Example 6

Parts were prepared in the same manner as in inventive example 5 exceptthat a neoalkoxy titanate based additive (KSN100) solution was appliedbefore the first conductive polymer dispersion layer instead ofbifunctional epoxy monomers. After drying, alternating layers ofdecanediamine toluenesulfonate and conductive polymer dispersioncomprising bi-functional epoxy monomers were applied and repeated 4 moretimes. The treatment and testing was then the same as Comparative

Examples Charging time (sec) Comparative Example 2 6X theoreticalInventive Example 6 2.2X theoretical

Comparative Examples 1 and 2 demonstrate the problem in the art withComparative Example 1 illustrating the problem when polymer slurry isused whereas in both comparative examples the charging time greatlyexceeds the theoretical charge limit. Inventive examples as described inthe embodiment and tables illustrate the advantage achieved with variouswork function modifiers. A work function modifier further improvescapacitor charging beyond that previously obtained in the art

Claimed is:
 1. A capacitor comprising: an anode; a cathode comprising: aconductive polymer layer; and a work function modifier layer adjacentsaid conductive polymer layer; and a dielectric layer between said anodeand said cathode.
 2. The capacitor of claim 1 wherein said work functionmodifier layer is between said dielectric layer and said conductivepolymer layer.
 3. The capacitor of claim 1 wherein said work functionmodifier layer is between said conductive polymer layer and an adjacentconductive polymer layer.
 4. The capacitor of claim 1 wherein saidcapacitor has a CV of at least 400 μF·V.
 5. The capacitor of claim 1with a charge time which is no more than 1.5 times a theoretical chargetime.
 6. The capacitor of claim 1 with a charge time which is no morethan 1.2 times said theoretical charge time.
 7. The capacitor of claim 1wherein said charge time is no more than 1 times said theoretical chargetime.
 8. The capacitor of claim 1 wherein said conductive polymer layercomprises a polyanion.
 9. The capacitor of claim 8 wherein saidpolyanion is polystyrene sulfonic acid.
 10. The capacitor of claim 1wherein said work function modifier layer comprises a work forcemodifier capable of reducing a work function of said conductive polymerlayer.
 11. The capacitor of claim 10 wherein said work function modifierreduces said work function by at least 0.1 eV to no more than 1 eV. 12.The capacitor of claim 10 wherein said work function modifier reducessaid work function to no more than 0.5 eV.
 13. The capacitor of claim 10wherein said work function modifier has a particle size of at least 10nm to no more than 100 nm.
 14. The capacitor of claim 10 wherein saidwork function modifier has a particle size of at least 20 nm to no morethan 40 nm.
 15. The capacitor of claim 10 wherein said work functionmodifier is an inorganic oxides.
 16. The capacitor of claim 15 whereinsaid inorganic oxide is selected from zinc oxides, cerium oxides, indiumoxides and manganese oxides.
 17. The capacitor of claim 10 wherein saidwork function modifier is an organometallic compound.
 18. The capacitorof claim 17 wherein the organometallic compound is an organotitanate.19. The capacitor of claim 18 wherein said organotitanates is selectedfrom the group consisting of di-alkoxy acyl titanate, tri-alkoxy acyltitanate, alkoxy triacyl titantate, alkoxy titantate, neoalkoxytitanate, titanium IV 2,2(bis 2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato, trisneodecanoato-O; titanium IV 2,2(bis 2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato,iris(dodecyl)benzenesulfonato-O; titanium IV 2,2(bis2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato, tris(dioctyl)phosphato-O; titanium IV2,2(bis 2-propenolatomethyl)tris(dioctyl)pyrophosphatobutanolato-O;titanium IV 2,2(bis 2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato,tris(2-ethylenediamino)ethylato; and titanium IV 2,2(bis2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato, tris(3-amino)phenylato beingrepresentative neoalkoxy titanates and derivatives thereof.
 20. Thecapacitor of claim 19 wherein said alkoxy titanate is a neoalkoxytitanate.
 21. The capacitor of claim 10 where said work functionmodifier is an organic compound with reactive functional groups.
 22. Thecapacitor of claim 21 wherein at least one functional group of saidfunctional groups is epoxy.
 23. The capacitor of claim 21 wherein saidwork function modifier is selected from the group consisting ofcycloaliphatic epoxy resin, ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether, bisphenolA epoxy resin, bisphenol F epoxy resin, bisphenol S epoxy resin, novolacepoxy resin, aliphatic epoxy resin, Glycidylamine epoxy resin, ethyleneglycol diglycidyl ether (EGDGE), propylene glycol diglycidyl ether(PGDGE), 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether (BDDGE), pentylene glycoldiglycidyl ether, hexylene glycol diglycidyl ether, cyclohexanedimethanol diglycidyl ether, resorcinol glycidyl ether, glyceroldiglycidyl ether (GDGE), glycerol polyglycidyl ethers, diglycerolpolyglycidyl ethers, trimethylolpropane polyglycidyl ethers, sorbitoldiglycidyl ether (Sorbitol-DGE), sorbitol polyglycidyl ethers,polyethylene glycol diglycidyl ether (PEGDGE), polypropylene glycoldiglycidyl ether, polytetramethylene glycol diglycidyl ether,di(2,3-epoxypropyl)ether, 1,3-butadiene diepoxide, 1,5-hexadienediepoxide, 1,2,7,8-diepoxyoctane, 1,2,5,6-diepoxycyclooctane, 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide, bisphenol A diglycidyl ether, maleimide-epoxycompounds, and derivatives thereof.
 24. The capacitor of claim 10wherein said work function modifier is a polycationic compound.
 25. Thecapacitor of claim 24 wherein said work function modifier is selectedfrom the group consisting of amidinium, phosphonium, quaternaryammonium, guanadinium, anilinium, thiouronium, carbenium, pyridinium,imidazolium, sulfonium, diazonium and derivatives thereof.
 26. Thecapacitor of claim 10 wherein said work function modifier is an ionicliquid.
 27. The capacitor of claim 26 wherein said work functionmodifier is selected from the group consisting of:

1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate and derivatives thereof.28. The capacitor of claim 26 wherein said ionic liquid is selected fromcationic ionic liquids or polycationic ionic liquids.
 29. The capacitorof claim 1 wherein said work function modifier is incorporated in ananogel.
 30. The capacitor of claim 29 wherein said nanogel ischemically crosslinked.
 31. The capacitor of claim 29 wherein saidnanogel is crosslinked by irradiation.
 32. The capacitor of claim 29wherein said nanogel comprises linear dendritic hybrid polymers.
 33. Thecapacitor of claim 32 wherein said linear dendritic hybrid polymers haveaverage hydroxyl groups of no more than
 128. 34. The capacitor of claim29 where said nanogel further comprises a cationic polyelectrolyte. 35.The capacitor of claim 29 wherein said nanogel is prepared from an ionicliquid and a polyelectrolyte.
 36. The capacitor of claim 29 wherein saidnanogel is prepared from a polysaccharide and1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate.
 37. A method for forminga capacitor comprising: forming an anode; forming a dielectric on saidanode; and forming a cathode on said anode comprising: forming aconductive polymer layer; and forming a work function modifier layer ina location to be adjacent said conductive polymer layer.
 38. The methodfor forming a capacitor of claim 37 wherein said work function modifierlayer is formed between said dielectric layer and said conductivepolymer layer.
 39. The method for forming a capacitor of claim 37wherein said work function modifier layer is formed between saidconductive polymer layer and an adjacent conductive polymer layer. 40.The method for forming a capacitor of claim 37 wherein said capacitorhas a CV of at least 400 μF·V.
 41. The method for forming a capacitor ofclaim 37 further comprising measuring a charge time wherein said chargetime is no more than 1.5 times a theoretical charge time.
 42. The methodfor forming a capacitor of claim 41 wherein said charge time is no morethan 1.2 times said theoretical charge time.
 43. The method for forminga capacitor of claim 41 wherein said charge time is no more than 1 timessaid theoretical charge time.
 44. The method for forming a capacitor ofclaim 37 wherein said conductive polymer layer comprises a polyanion.45. The method for forming a capacitor of claim 44 wherein saidpolyanion is polystyrene sulfonic acid.
 46. The method for forming acapacitor of claim 37 wherein said work function modifier layercomprises a work force modifier capable of reducing a work function ofsaid conductive polymer layer.
 47. The method for forming a capacitor ofclaim 46 wherein said work function modifier reduces said work functionby at least 0.1 eV to no more than 1 eV.
 48. The method for forming acapacitor of claim 46 wherein said work function modifier reduces saidwork function to no more than 0.5 eV.
 49. The method for forming acapacitor of claim 46 wherein said work function modifier has a particlesize of at least 10 nm to no more than 100 nm.
 50. The method forforming a capacitor of claim 46 wherein said work function modifier hasa particle size of at least 20 nm to no more than 40 nm.
 51. The methodfor forming a capacitor of claim 46 wherein said work function modifieris an inorganic oxide.
 52. The method for forming a capacitor of claim51 wherein said inorganic oxide is selected from zinc oxides, ceriumoxides, indium oxides and manganese oxides.
 53. The method for forming acapacitor of claim 46 wherein said work function modifier is anorganometallic compound.
 54. The method for forming a capacitor of claim53 wherein the organometallic compound is an organotitanate.
 55. Themethod for forming a capacitor of claim 54 wherein said organotitanatesis selected from the group consisting of di-alkoxy acyl titanate,tri-alkoxy acyl titanate, alkoxy triacyl titantate, alkoxy titantate,neoalkoxy titanate with titanium IV 2,2(bis2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato, tris neodecanoato-O; titanium IV 2,2(bis2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato, iris(dodecyl)benzenesulfonato-O;titanium IV 2,2(bis 2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato,tris(dioctyl)phosphato-O; titanium IV 2,2(bis2-propenolatomethyl)tris(dioctyl)pyrophosphatobutanolato-O; titanium IV2,2(bis 2-propenolatomethyl)butanolato, tris(2-ethylenediamino)ethylato;and titanium IV 2,2(bis 2-propenolatomethyl) butanolato,tris(3-amino)phenylato and derivatives thereof.
 56. The method forforming a capacitor of claim 55 wherein said alkoxy titanate is aneoalkoxy titanate.
 57. The method for forming a capacitor of claim 46where said work function modifier is an organic compound with reactivefunctional groups.
 58. The method for forming a capacitor of claim 57wherein at least one functional group of said functional groups isepoxy.
 59. The method for forming a capacitor of claim 57 wherein saidwork function modifier is selected from the group consisting ofcycloaliphatic epoxy resin, ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether, bisphenolA epoxy resin, bisphenol F epoxy resin, bisphenol S epoxy resin, novolacepoxy resin, aliphatic epoxy resin, Glycidylamine epoxy resin, ethyleneglycol diglycidyl ether (EGDGE), propylene glycol diglycidyl ether(PGDGE), 1,4-butanediol diglycidyl ether (BDDGE), pentylene glycoldiglycidyl ether, hexylene glycol diglycidyl ether, cyclohexanedimethanol diglycidyl ether, resorcinol glycidyl ether, glyceroldiglycidyl ether (GDGE), glycerol polyglycidyl ethers, diglycerolpolyglycidyl ethers, trimethylolpropane polyglycidyl ethers, sorbitoldiglycidyl ether (Sorbitol-DGE), sorbitol polyglycidyl ethers,polyethylene glycol diglycidyl ether (PEGDGE), polypropylene glycoldiglycidyl ether, polytetramethylene glycol diglycidyl ether,di(2,3-epoxypropyl)ether, 1,3-butadiene diepoxide, 1,5-hexadienediepoxide, 1,2,7,8-diepoxyoctane, 1,2,5,6-diepoxycyclooctane, 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide, bisphenol A diglycidyl ether, maleimide-epoxycompounds, and derivatives thereof.
 60. The method for forming acapacitor of claim 46 wherein said work function modifier is apolycationic compound.
 61. The method for forming a capacitor of claim60 wherein said work function modifier is selected from the groupconsisting of amidinium, phosphonium, quaternary ammonium, guanadinium,anilinium, thiouronium, carbenium, pyridinium, imidazolium, sulfonium,diazonium and derivatives thereof.
 62. The method for forming acapacitor of claim 46 wherein said work function modifier is an ionicliquid.
 63. The method for forming a capacitor of claim 62 wherein saidwork function modifier is selected from the group consisting of:

1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate and derivatives thereof.64. The capacitor of claim 62 wherein said ionic liquid is selected fromcationic ionic liquids or polycationic ionic liquids.
 65. The capacitorof claim 37 wherein said work function modifier is incorporated in ananogel.
 66. The capacitor of claim 65 wherein said nanogel ischemically crosslinked.
 67. The capacitor of claim 65 wherein saidnanogel is crosslinked by irradiation.
 68. The capacitor of claim 65wherein said nanogel comprises linear dendritic hybrid polymers.
 69. Thecapacitor of claim 68 wherein said linear dendritic hybrid polymers haveaverage hydroxyl groups of no more than
 128. 70. The capacitor of claim65 where said nanogel further comprises a cationic polyelectrolyte. 71.The capacitor of claim 65 wherein said nanogel is prepared from an ionicliquid and a polyelectrolyte.
 72. The capacitor of claim 65 wherein saidnanogel is prepared from a polysaccharide and1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium tetrafluoroborate.